Libmonster ID: RU-17275
Автор(ы) публикации: Boris PAVLYUTKIN, Igor CHEK.RYZHOV

by Boris PAVLYUTKIN, Dr. Sc. (Geol. & Miner.), leading research assistant of the Laboratory of Regional Geology and Tectonics, Igor CHEK.RYZHOV, research assistant of the Laboratory of Geochemistry, Far-Eastern Geological Institute, RAS Far-Eastern Branch (Vladivostok)

The Earth's sedimentary crust keeps not only the chronicle of the works of our distant forbears-- the object of interest of historians and archeologists- but also no less interesting testimonies of evolution of different components of the environment. Moreover, the latter had been registered in the natural "memory book" long before the appearance of man himself. Undoubtedly the plant cover also belongs there.

Non-specialists are usually greatly impressed by fossilized residues of the plants, growing for the last 65 mln years. This is natural as it was just in that interval called the Cainozoic that a majority of them acquired an appearance close to the contemporary. In the geochronological interval of 33-35 mln years, the plant world of the early Cainophyte, which had formed in the late Cretaceous, when dinosaurs were still alive, changed into the plant cover of the late Cainophyte. So, we will talk here about two representatives of the late Cainozoic geoflora, the location of which coincides with the southern sector of Primorski Krai.

Paleobotany as a scientific trend in paleontology is based on studies of fossilized vegetative (leaves, leafy and leafless shoots, wood) and generative residues (fruits, seeds, spores, pollen). If the abovementioned objects get

стр. 74

Location of Voznovo and Kraskino floras (poured triangles).

into a water body, they have a chance to pass to a fossilized state under a layer of mineral ooze or volcanic ash. In the conditions of oxygen deficit there take place complex processes of mummification, then fossilization (petrification) or coalification in them--depending on physico-chemical specifics of the medium.

After such changes the plant residues often preserve fine details of anatomy, due to which paleobotanists determine their belonging to concrete taxonomic groups and reveal conformity to families and species of contemporary flora. This can be achieved, first of all, in regard of plants existing in the Cainozoic, the youngest era in geological history of the Earth. The residues of leaves, which are called leaf imprints not too accurately, are a predominant macroobject specialists have to deal with. In fact, they are pseudomorphoses of the mineral substance according to plant residues, well known in geology, and often preserving fine peculiarities of the leaf tissue structure. Their abundance in burials is conditioned mainly by mass leaf shedding in unfavorable climatic circumstances--adaptation to progressing cooling and clearly marked seasonal character of the climate during the Cainozoic. Sometimes such burials are formed during explosive volcanic eruptions, but leaf residues in such layers are usually preserved too badly due to mechanical and thermal action of ash particles on them.

The so-called evergreen plants predominating in the regions of subtropical and tropical climates change leaves not seasonally but through their gradual rotation. Therefore, the possibility of their transfer to the fossilized state is essentially lower than in deciduous plants. Associations of buried plant residues--taphocenoses give us information on the composition of wood cover (trees, shrubs, ligneous lianas) in the setting of sedimentary basins and allow to restore in general terms the forest nature of past years. As for the grass component, it is studied mainly by remains of fruits, seeds, spores and pollen.

Small lakes in the alleys of rivers, estuaries, lagoons and big lake reservoirs play a role of water basins accumulating products of fallen leaves. The lake reservoirs, as a rule, are thin layered, therefore plant residues get into them and then swelled and heavy smoothly go down to the bottom and cover the surface of the silt layer. This conditions their safe keeping while turning into a fossilized state.

Traces of some ancient lakes with accumulated thickets of thin-fragmented, clayey silts of tung-oil trees were discovered in the territory of Primorski Krai. They had passed different stages of diagenesis (lithification) and turned into hard rocks of rocky and half-rocky type. Their thin-plated separateness in combination with solidity allows to take the rocky massif to pieces and get leaf imprints in perfect state.

For the last 10 years we have been studying complexes of plant residues, collected in the rocks formed in 2 lake paleobasins, located in the environs of Bogopol (Kavalerovsky district) and Kraskovo (Khasansky district). The sedimentary thickets containing them are known in geology as Voznovo and Fatashinskaya suites (complexes of mountain rocks) respectively. Our collections count around 2,000 leaf imprints, leafy shoots of the Coniferales, fruits and seeds, forming 2 plant

стр. 75

complexes--Voznovo and Kraskino ones. Corresponding floras are distinguished by their exclusive taxonomic wealth, including representatives of more than 100 species of each.

The geological age of the abovementioned suites, starting from the early stage of their studies by the outstanding Russian paleobotanist, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Afrikan Krishtofovich (1885-1953), was dated by the Oligocene (23-34 mln years). The successive link between the early Kraskino and following Voznovo floras was emphasized as well. Later on Russian specialists reconsidered this conclusion (mainly under influence of the results of studies of floras analogous in composition) and began to refer the complexes in Primorski Krai to the younger Miocene (5.3-23 mln years), connecting their formation with its warmest stage--the so-called climatic optimum.

Our long studies based on a rather more representative paleobotanical material confirm the correctness of Krishtofovich's conclusion on the belonging of the aforesaid floras to the Oligocene. Moreover, the obtained data show the conformity of the Kraskino complex to the basal one, i.e. to the earliest Oligocene. This conclusion was made due to the findings of the plants in its composition unknown before, which are typical of the Eocene preceding the Oligocene. The presence of such plants (first of all, representatives of archaic genera of trochodendroides and archeampelos), geohistorically nowhere going over the limits of the early-late Oligocene (-28.5 mln years), undoubtedly proves the pre-Miocene age of the plant complexes consisting of them. However, these plants are represented in them by a single specimen, while the base of the given floras is formed by the beech, Ulmaceae, birch and Juglandaceae families--common flora components of the turgai (the term first introduced into paleobotany by Krishtofovich) ecological type. This makes it impossible to consider Kraskino and Voznovo floras together with the preceding Eocene floristic complexes.

The composition of both burials demonstrates predominance of mountain slope plants, while the typical representatives of river valleys (poplar, willow, elm, Judas-tree, liquidambar) are represented by single specimens. Among the Coniferales here predominate the Pinaceae, Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae families, but groups of flowering plants in them are compositionally (structurally) essentially different. While the Kraskino flora shows absolute predominance of almost all known genera of the beech family (beech, chestnut, oak, castanopsis, lithocarpus, cyclobalanopsis and even notophagus, widely spread today only in the Southern Hemisphere), the Voznovo flora abounds in the Ericales order and Betulaceae. In our opinion, this is explained by the fact that they are of different age (Voznovo is younger) and also by coincidence of their locations with different gypsometric levels. The Kraskino flora reflects the plant cover of the lower-middle belt of the mountains, while the Voznovo flora corresponds to the higher gypsometric level--formation of an oak-birch forest with a rich undergrowth mainly of the Ericaceae family. The latter include representatives of 7 genera: Rhododendron, Menziesia, Gaultheria, Enkianthus, Arbutus, Vaccinium, Lyonia. Prior to our studies this information was not available.

The Kraskino flora is characterized by unique generic and specific diversity of the beech family, noted neither in the previous Eocene floristic complexes not in the

стр. 77

following, younger, ones. Oak (Quercus) is presented in it at least by 12 species, beech (Fagus)--by 7, chestnut (Castanea)--2; rather diverse are also evergreen representatives of the beech family from the Cyclobalanopsis genus. Not a single of the known fossilized floras can boast of such a rich composition. And this gives an undoubted vividly marked originality to the object. The second peculiarity of the Kraskino flora is connected with its transitional type, it reflects an intermediate, rather short according to geological standards, stage of change of 2 geofloras in the Northern Hemisphere: early Cainophyte (late Cretaceous--Eocene) and late Cainophyte (Oligocene--Pleiocene). The later is connected with a well-known combination of words "relicts of Turgai flora".

Now let's turn to the most significant plants from both phytohorizons--Voznovo and Kraskino ones. In the environs of the village of Bogopol in the layers of the Voznovo suite were found remains of Ginkgo leaves (Ginkgo ex gr. adiantoides (Ung.) Heer), resembling segments of fern Adiantum. The Ginkgo genus belongs to the Ginkgoaceae family, characteristic of the plant world of the Mesozoic--dinosaurs' contemporary. The only still existing species G.biloba L. was found in China--a natural reserve of many plants extinct in other regions. Today it is spread in the culture in the regions with a moderate heat climate.

Pseudolarix japonica Tanai et Onoe abundantly represented in the Voznovo collection belongs to the Pinaceae family. Today only one of its species, represented in the mountain forests of the eastern part of Central China, is widely known. It belongs to the Coniferales shedding leaves in autumn, like larch, but unlike the latter, its cones decompose during maturation. So, only a needle is usually found in fossilized state (it has a widened upper part, often with a rounded apical point, while larch has acuminate one), and also glumes, slightly covering alate seeds in the cone before its maturation. Preudolarix is a tall tree, beautiful in autumn attire (that's why it is called golden larch), very popular in regions with appropriate climatic conditions.

стр. 78

The Voznovo flora abounds also in pine species (Pinus spp.*) The observant readers must have noticed that pine leaves (needles) are grouped differently. For example, in Far-Eastern Korean pine, even in scientific editions mentioned as Korean cedar, and in Japanese stone pine they are grouped in fives, while in widespread Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Pinus Funebris Kom., usually found in western regions of Primorye--in twos. In the North-Eastern China and Japan predominates Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii Pari.). The Voznovo collection presents remains of pine leaves in the form of bundles consisting of 2, 3, 4 and 5 needles. In addition to needles and seeds, here was found an original fusiform cone, resembling a weight in ancient clocks. Such cones are typical of Pinus monticola Dougl from the group of five-needled, its seeds are small with a long wing (such seeds are also represented in the Voznovo collection).

An impressive element of the phytocomplex under consideration is Tsuga sp.--a typical representative of the Pinaceae family, well-known perhaps for everyone from the novels of Fennimore Cooper as hamlock. The species is widespread in Japan, South-Western China and in the American continent mainly in mountain coniferous forests, though certain species, for example, T.canadensis (L.) Cam, belong to valley associations. In addition to solitary needles and fragments of leafy shoots, the Voznovo collection contains well-preserved female cone.

Metasequoia occidentalis (Newb.) Chaney, dominant in the Voznovo burial, belongs to coniferous plants of the Taxodiaceae family. Its representatives had a wide area of distribution in relatively recent geological past. In the fossilized state we usually find falling leafy shoots, sometimes small elegant female cones. Some genera of this family belong to the group of the plants shedding twigs (in autumn such plants shed not leaves, but terminal shoots). Falling shoots of Metasequoia for a long time were referred to the extinct species of another representative of the family-taxodium, three species of which dwell at present in marshy localities of the south-eastern states of the USA and mountain forests of Mexico. But in 1940 the plant was discovered alive in the Chinese province of Hupei. At present this species known as M.glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng is cultivated in all continents in regions with a moderate heat climate. It is very popular in China with people growing trees and gardens.

Glyptostrobus europaeus (Brongn.) Heer, belonging to the Taxodiaceae family, found in the Voznovo collec-

* sp.--abbreviation of Latin species, meaning an absence of any link with a concrete species, spp.--a group of such species.--Ed.

tion, is also referred to the group of coniferous plants shedding twigs. The only contemporary species of the genus--G.pensilis Koch.--is spread in the limited territory. This small tree grows, like willow, along channels in the Northern Vietnam and Southern Chine, i.e. in tropical zones. In geological past the genus dwelt in an enormous territory of the Old and New World, including more moderate climatic conditions, and in the opinion of many paleobotanists was represented by several species. In the Voznovo flora one can find terminal shoots, fragments of twigs, sometimes with small cones.

Present in this collection is also Thuja iwasae Huz. belonging to the Cupressaceae family. The latter is presented by 2 genera in the contemporary dendroflora of Primorye: Janiperus and Microbiota--endemic, widespread in Sikhote-Alin, a zone located above the border of forest vegetation. In the past geological epochs, according to findings, the set of genera of the Cupressaceae family in the territory of Primorye was richer, in particular, for its plant cover rather common were thuya, cedar, Thujopsis and libocedrus.

In the Voznovo suite rather common are also leaf remains of Tetracentron piperoides (Lesq.) Wolfe--a species, very rare in the fossilized state. Finding of its residues is probably the first trustworthy one in tertiary (Paleogene-Neogene) sediments in the territory of Pri-

стр. 79

morye. The contemporary dendrioflora knows only one of its species-- T.sinense Oliv, widespread in mountain forests of Central and South-Western China. The species converges (by leaves) with rather well-known Cercidiphyllum japonicum Siebold et Zucc, differing by detail of nervation and the form of glands at the tips of denticles.

Of great interest is a finding in the Voznovo complex (the first in the Far East, including fossilized floras in Japan, Korea and China) residues of the leaves of Arbutus primorica Pavlyutkin)--a representative of the Ericaceae family, which includes the well-known Ledum and Rhododendron, and also cowberry and bog whortleberry. The Arbutus genus, whose edible fruits resemble strawberry, has at present a disjunctive area of distribution. Its contemporary species grow in two geographically remote regions. The Mediterranean in A.andrachne L., US Western territories are known for 3 species: A.texana Buckl. The fossilized Voznovo Arbutus is more like A.menziesii, the area of distribution of which cover coastal regions of the State of Washington and an adjacent territory of Canadian south-west.

The Voznovo suite also includes leaf residues of Rhododendron belonging to several species, including Rhododendron voznovicum Pavlyutkin. The area of distribution of a majority of representatives of this genus at present is mainly connected with mountain slopes. In areas with moderate heat and colder climatic types Rhododendrons look like shrubs, but in mountain subtropics, for example, in moss-grown forests of the Chinese province of Yunnan they acquire habitus of rather big trees. A great number of species due to their high ornamental appearance have become an object of selection, especially in Japan.

The leaf of liquidambar (Liquidambar europaea A.Br.) from the Voznovo collection belongs to the Hamamelidaceae family, a generic majority of which at present is

стр. 80

found in subtropical and tropical climatic zones. The Liquidambar genus counting 3 (according to other estimates 4) species has a disjunctive area of distribution: the south of Asia Minor, central and southern provinces of China, including Taiwan, and south-eastern states of the USA. According to the established views, this is an evidence of antiquity of the genus and of its dominant character at one time. The latter is fully confirmed by paleobotanical data. The leaf from the Voznovo collection is five-lobed, which is characteristic of L.europaea and L.styraciflua L., well known under the name of redgum.

The Voznovo fossilized horse chestnut--Aesculus sp. is a representative of the Hippocastanaceae family. It is well known that horst chestnut has nothing to do with a real chestnut, which belongs to the Fagaceae family, and is not even its distant relative. This is one of the misunderstandings established in plant toponimics. One of the contemporary species of horse chestnut (A.hippocastanum L.), widespread in culture in western and south-western regions of the former USSR, is mentioned in once very popular songs and is an object of pride for citizens of Kiev and Odessa. The Voznovo horse chestnut leaf differs from the contemporary European species (A.hippocastanum) and its close relative A.twibinaa Blume, and is to greater extent like A.sylvatica Bart.

The Kraskino plant complex contains leaves of Trochodendroides arctica (Heer) Berry--a plant, rather polymorphous, abundantly represented in Late Cretaceous-Eocene floras by several morphotypes. The latter are regarded as independent species by some paleobotanists, while others think that they are forms within one common species. The specimens found by as belong to the cocculifolia form due to the similarity with the Cocculus genus leaves. The Trochodendroides genus is related to the so-called formal taxons, i.e. to such taxons whose systematic state remains a mystery for scientists.

The layers of plant residues in the Kraskino complex often contain big leaves of Platanus aculeate Klimova). The Platanus genus, represented in geological past by a great number of species, was widespread in Northern Hemisphere. At present the plane in the natural state

стр. 81

grows in Caucasia, where it is known under a local name chinara, and in the North American continent (local name--sikimora). It has big-lobed dentate leaves. By the Oligocene the genus had mainly disappeared in Asia, except for one species Platanus kerrii, growing in the limited territory in Northern Vietnam. The fossilized Platanus aculeate is obviously one of the last species, which had finally disappeared by the mid-Oligocene.

In the Kraskino burial was found a great number of oak (Quercus) leaf residues, represented by more than 10 species, among them Quercus ussuriensis Krysht.) big petiolate leaves of which are notable for sharp teeth with concave sides and rounded hollows between them. This species was first discovered and described by Krishtofovich in the Kraskino flora composition back in the 1930s. Its close analogs has not been found in the contemporary flora. Quercus kodairae Huz., represented here, is also related to the extinct group of the Quercus genus of obscure kinship.

For the first time in this complex we have established a new oak species--Quercus sp.nov, related to a typical genus section. Its leaves represent papilliform processes on the apical points of spherical teeth and a relatively long leaf-stalk. It differs by these characters from outwardly similar contemporary species--Mongolian oak, dentate oak and Vutaishansky. The first two are common for the territory of Primorye, the third grows at the north-east of China and in Korea.

Oak in the Voznovo flora is presented by one species, in the Kraskino complex by several ones. A part of them does not have close analogs in the contemporary dendroflora and is related, probably, to different extinct morphological groups, including Fagus uotanii Auz., for the first time described together with tertiary floras of Korea. Its leaves have big teeth with thin acuminate tips, absent with contemporary species; moreover, this character is well preserved in all numerous specimens.

Several maple species (Acer spp.) have been found in the floras under consideration. In the fossilized state are often observed not only leaves, but also fragments of collective fruits in the form of the so-called double-winged seed. The later disintegrates during maturation into two winged seeds (samaras), shifting due to rotation in air flow (like helicopter fans) to a rather significant distance. This is the so-called anemochorous type of seed separation. In conclusion we must emphasize that uniqueness of the considered Oligocene floras of Primorye is not limited by their taxonomic richness and perfect state of plant residues. Their significance, as of appropriate geological objects Voznovo and Fatashinskaya suites--is determined by coincidence with a boundary interval between the Eocene and Oligocene-- time of change of two geofloras: early and late Cainophyte.


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